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Giancarlo di Marco,

Juan Carlos Dall’Asta

Xi’an Jiaotong – Liverpool University. Giancarlo.DiMarco@xjtlu.edu.cn. ORCID: 0000-0001-6339-7517

Xi’an Jiaotong – Liverpool University. juancarlos.dallasta@xjtlu.edu.cn. ORCID: 0000-0002-8600-2757

Exploring Architectural Language evolution as a

consequence of 3D-Printed Concrete Technology

Exploración de la evolución del lenguaje arquitectónico como

consecuencia de la tecnología de concreto impreso en 3D

EÍDOS N

Revista Cientíca de Arquitectura y Urbanismo

ISSN: 1390-5007

revistas.ute.edu.ec/index.php/eidos

Resumen:

La convergencia de la innovadora tecnología de im-

presión 3D y las mezclas de concreto de alto rendi-

miento, introducen un posible cambio de paradigma

en el diseño arquitectónico y en toda la industria de

arquitectura, ingeniería y construcción (AEC), y abor-

dan cuestiones importantes como la implementación

de la Construcción 4.0 (equivalente a la Industria 4.0

para la construcción) y la sostenibilidad. El proyecto

de investigación en curso forma parte de un esfuerzo

interdisciplinario e internacional, articulado en la inter-

sección de la Arquitectura y la Ingeniería Civil, con tres

proyectos nanciados que buscan denir, en primer

lugar, una justicación para las aplicaciones industria-

les del concreto impreso en 3D (3DPC); y, en segundo

lugar, el valor arquitectónico de esta tecnología rela-

tivamente nueva. La investigación se lleva a cabo en

colaboración con un empresario industrial especializa-

do en la impresión de concreto en 3D a gran escala, lo

cual permite evaluar la viabilidad de los resultados de

la investigación a escala industrial. Este artículo infor-

ma sobre las primeras fases de la investigación, que

consisten en la producción y prueba de especímenes

de 3DPC, con diferentes tipos de mezcla de concre-

to, y explora el impacto transformador de 3DPC en el

lenguaje arquitectónico, considerando sus dimensio-

nes estéticas, funcionales y culturales. A través de una

revisión de la literatura, y al examinar los estudios de

caso, marcos teóricos y prototipos, este artículo abre

una reexión sobre las implicaciones de aplicar esta

tecnología innovadora a la expresión arquitectónica y

a las conguraciones espaciales.

Palabras clave: concreto impreso en 3D; fabricación

robótica; lenguaje arquitectónico, materialidad, textu-

ra en 3D.

Abstract:

The convergence of innovative 3D printing technology

and high-performance concrete mixes introduces a

potential paradigm shift in architectural design and

the entire Architecture Engineering Construction

(AEC) industry, addressing important issues like the

implementation of Construction 4.0 (the equivalent of

Industry 4.0 for construction) and Sustainability The

ongoing research project forms part of an articulated

interdisciplinary and international endeavour at the

intersection of Architecture and Civil Engineering, with

three funded projects aiming to dene rstly a rationale

for the industrial applications of 3D-printed concrete

(3DPC) and secondly the architectural value of this

relatively new technology. The research is conducted

in collaboration with an industrial partner specializing

in large-scale concrete 3D printing, making it possible

to assess the feasibility of the research outcomes at

the industrial scale. This article reports on the rst

phases of the research, consisting in the production

and testing of 3DPC specimens with different types of

concrete mix, and explores the transformative impact

of 3DPC on the architectural language, considering its

aesthetic, functional, and cultural dimensions. Through

a literature review, examining case studies, theoretical

frameworks, and prototyping, this paper opens a

reection on the implications of applying this innovative

technology to architectural expression and spatial

congurations.

Keywords: 3D-printed concrete; robotic fabrication;

architectural language, materiality, 3d texture.

Recepción: 16. 09, 2023 - Aceptación: 28, 11, 2023 - Publicado: 01, 01, 2024

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1. INTRODUCTION

By aiming to the integration of

aesthetic values with the structural per-

formance of 3DPC elements, this project

plants a more holistic approach to archi-

tectural and structural design, bridging the

gap between construction disciplines and

aiming towards a unied design-to-build

approach that includes construction site

management.

3DPC is a relatively new technol-

ogy that allows the creation of complex

structures by deposition of layers (Xiao et

al. 2021). The behaviour of 3DPC is differ-

ent from traditional casted concrete: the

layered and non-orthotropic structure of

the built element, together with the material

deposition process, make combining con-

crete with other materials capable of re-

sisting tensional forces a challenging task.

Attempts have been made to create con-

crete mixes that transmit tensional stresses

between the layers, usually through small

pieces of shear-resisting materials such as

carbon bre (Melenka et al. 2016). Howev-

er, this method only partially addresses the

issue of non-homogeneity of the material,

thus resulting in an unforeseeable diffused

weakness of the 3D-printed element.

Therefore, at least at present,

3DPC structures rely primarily on the ma-

terial’s compression-only resistance, lim-

iting the design possibility to a relatively

small range of non-load-bearing elements

(Quan et al., 2022) or to emulating tradi-

tional structural elements (Di Marco et al.,

2023).

From a structural point of view,

considering 3DPC as a potentially free-

form stone, it is possible to imagine com-

plex compression-only structural elements

obeying the same principles adopted in

the Romanic and Gothic styles and, more

recently, in Antoni Gaudi’s work (Figure 1).

Lastly, it is interesting to recognise

the aesthetic value of 3DPC and its lay-

ered texture, witnessing and resembling a

production process that stays visible once

the concrete element is nished, but also

the innite possibilities and spatial con-

gurations deriving from the absence of

formworks and the direct creation of the

desired shape.

Figure 1 Antoni Gaudi, columns in the Sagrada Familia

https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2020/apr/03/antoni-gaudi-sagrada-familia

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2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research project lies at the in-

tersection between structural performance

and aesthetics: one is essential for the oth-

er. That is why the rst part of the research

focuses on assessing the performance of

3DPC. Once the performance has been

assessed and benchmarked then it will be

possible to explore the architectural value

of 3DPC as a construction material.

We can identify three different

phases, each one characterised by spe-

cic research questions.

Phase 1 – Materials benchmarking

• What is the actual performance of

3D-printed concrete compared with

traditional casted concrete?

• What is the strength of the steel/con-

crete bond in steel-reinforced 3D-

printed concrete elements?

With two different types of concrete

mix, robotic fabrication, large-format 3D

printers and a bespoke 500-ton hydraulic

press, this research project aims to cover

the entire design, production and testing

cycle of 3DPC structural elements, starting

with the study of an optimised beam.

The rst step is the benchmarking

of the materials involved.

Some tests had already been con-

ducted on one of the two concrete mixes.

Unfortunately, it turned out that the speci-

mens used during the tests were casted

and not 3D-printed: this alters completely

the nature of the specimen (continuous

and orthotropic instead of discontinuous

and non-orthotropic) and its structural

performance.

Each concrete mix has been used

to create 20 fully 3D-printed specimens

(20x20x20cm) (Figure 4) to evaluate their

compression resistance and 10 fully 3D-

printed specimens (20x20x20cm) with

one 40cm rebar installed for 20cm inside

the specimen to test the rebar/concrete

bond.

Figure 2 3DPC specimen used for compression tests.

Photo by the authors.

The rst batch of tests has shown

that the compressive strength is higher in

absolute value when the load is applied

perpendicularly to the deposition lay-

ers of the specimen. Although this result

was predictable, it’s important to observe

how the number of specimens qualifying

as M20 (grade 20, suitable for reinforced

concrete applications) were 10, 5 of which

were subject to load applied perpendicu-

larly to the layers and 5 to load coplanar

with the layers. This circumstance makes it

necessary to conduct additional extensive

compression tests.

Phase 2 – Computational Design of 3DPC

elements

• Is it possible to improve the struc-

tural performance of 3DPC elements

through computational design strat-

egies?

Computational methods allow for

designing structural elements and simulat-

ing their physical and structural behaviour

under specic load congurations, thus

evaluating their performance.

This phase will consist of the design

and topological optimisation of a structural

element created in Rhinoceros and Grass-

hopper with additional tools such as Karam-

ba3D for structural analysis.

Topological optimization allows re-

ducing the quantity of compression-resis-

tant material inside the structural element,

removing it from those areas in which com-

pression stress is not present or is reason-

ably negligible. The criteria for dening

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the threshold of compression resistance

for the optimised volume come from the

benchmarking of concrete mixes.

The computational model will con-

sider the mechanical properties of the con-

crete mixes used in the research project.

When the computational model will

be ready, we nally aim to explore compu-

tational design methods to integrate archi-

tectural value into the structural elements

in three different ways:

• The creation of informed patterns and

textures on the elements’ surfaces.

• Playing with continuity to create

seamless structural elements merg-

ing the vertical and horizontal ones.

• Playing with spatial congurations

of non-load-bearing lightweight ele-

ments – the same topological optimi-

sation can help dene the voids ratio

in non-load-bearing elements.

Together with the industrial part-

ner, some tests have been conducted us-

ing large-format concrete 3D printers to

create different types of complex shapes.

Counting on the availability of a known

concrete mix with specic rheology, and

pushing the cartesian 3D printers beyond

their conventional use for 3DPC (horizon-

tal layering), we have achieved the results

shown in the following images.

The most promising result for this

phase of the experimentation on 3DPC

aesthetic is shown in the following image

(Figure 6), where non-planar 3DPC lay-

ers where deposited by operating the 3D

printer simultaneously in the X, Y, and Z

directions (3 axes instead of 2½) and con-

stantly adjusting the speed and material

ow to obtain every time a continuous de-

posited layer.

The methodology employed to in-

vestigate the relationship between tech-

nological evolution and the evolution of ar-

chitectural language, specically focusing

on the impact of 3DPC technology is struc-

tured around several key components, in-

Figure 3 3DPC three-dimensional pattern

Photo by the authors.

Figure 4 Non-planar concrete 3D printing

Photo by the authors.

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cluding data collection, data analysis, and

theoretical frameworks.

Data collection includes:

• Literature Review to establish a

comprehensive foundation for our

research, we conducted an exten-

sive literature review. This involved

the examination of peer-reviewed

articles, books, conference papers,

and reports related to architectural

evolution, technological advance-

ments, and 3DPC.

• Case Studies to gain empirical in-

sights into the impact of 3DPC on

architectural language, we selected

a series of relevant case studies.

These case studies encompassed

a range of architectural projects and

applications of 3DPC; the selection

criteria included diversity in design

approaches, technological integra-

tion, and geographic location.

• Qualitative Data Analysis to scruti-

nize the collected data from the case

studies. We utilized thematic analy-

sis to identify recurring patterns,

themes, and concepts within the ar-

chitectural projects. This process in-

volved coding and categorizing data

to extract meaningful insights into

how 3DPC has inuenced architec-

tural language, including changes

in form, materiality, and design pro-

cesses.

• Comparative Analysis to discern

commonalities and distinctions

among the selected case studies.

This approach enabled us to draw

parallels between different archi-

tectural contexts, identifying over-

arching trends and variations in the

impact of 3DPC on architectural lan-

guage.

3. 3D-PRINTED CONCRETE

TECHNOLOGY

The rst concrete 3D printer dates

back to 2007 when the Italian engineer En-

rico Dini created the D-Shape, a cartesian

large-format 3D printer with a work area of

6x6m.

3DPC is commonly achieved by

deposition of layers, and it is made by

moving an extruder in the X, Y and Z di-

rections while pumping a concrete mix

through the nozzle (Figure 2).

Figure 5 Robotic 3D printing

Photo by the authors.

Apart from technicalities, the pro-

cess relies on gravity, so the extruded

concrete mix falls on the building platform.

Then, subsequent layers are stacked on

top of the previous ones for the same natu-

ral principle. For this reason, voids cannot

be created directly, and some support

material or device is needed to hold the

concrete layers on top of the void. In stan-

dard Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

3D printing, the use of Polyethylene Tere-

phthalate (PET) lament makes it possible

to bridge relatively long spans without any

support because the thin plastic extrusion

solidies immediately. Concrete mix, on

the contrary, remains wet and uid for a

relatively long time, making it only possible

to extrude on existing and stable supports.

From the material perspective, us-

ing a 3-5cm nozzle demands particular

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attention. Concrete mix must ow through

the nozzle, which makes using standard

mixes impossible due to the size of the

aggregate. The use of smaller aggregates

makes the concrete mix even more uid,

thus affecting rheology (critical for the 3D

printing process) as well as the nal per-

formance of the architectural element.

The research on materials for 3D

printing has already produced some re-

sults in the form of high-performance con-

crete mixes. Nevertheless, performance-

wise, concrete is compression-resistant

and it is challenging to combine it with

other materials that would provide the nec-

essary strength to resist tensional forces.

Fibres are the most promising

solution to address the tensional stress.

However:

• bres do not create continuity be-

tween the deposited layers;

• the homogeneous concrete mix with

embedded bres cannot provide the

necessary differentiated behaviour

required by the non-uniform distri-

bution of stresses within a structural

element.

Parallel to the production technol-

ogy background, another important con-

tribution to the research on 3DPC comes

from the development of computational

technologies and methods.

The increased computational pow-

er makes it possible to conduct digital

experiments and simulations with a good

level of precision in terms of correspon-

dence to real physical behaviors and sys-

tem dynamics (Di Marco, 2018; Tedeschi

& Lombardi, 2018).

The benets deriving from digital

simulation regard the possibility to reduce

the quantity of prototypes, physical mod-

els and laboratory tests, as well as the

possibility to run optimisation iterations ex-

ploring new possibilities for materials dis-

tribution within the structural elements and

a general better performance.

This project aims to analyse and

optimise the production processes of

steel-reinforced 3D-printed high-perfor-

mance concrete elements to push the lim-

its of concrete 3D printing applications. By

using computational design methods for

optimising the layout of concrete and re-

bars, longer spans, higher structural per-

formance, and a better architectural de-

sign can be achieved while lowering the

time and costs of building complex archi-

tectural shapes.

Special consideration will be given

to adding architectural value to the struc-

tural elements.

As with every new technology,

3DPC is still evolving and is now emulat-

ing the traditional construction language:

columns, walls (Figure 3).

Figure 6 3D-printed walls

Photo by the authors.

The technical feasibility of com-

pression and shear-resisting 3DPC struc-

tural elements opens up new, challenging

applications for the construction industry,

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creates a new path for architectural and

structural design and opens the gates of

specialisation and experimentation (Sa-

bate et al., 2003) to concrete 3D printing,

at the same time addressing the actual -

nancial and sustainability issues deriving

from the use of concrete.

4. EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURAL

LANGUAGE AND TECHNOLOGY

The symbiotic and fascinating

relationship between architectural lan-

guage and technological progress has

been a dening characteristic of the

built environment’s evolution, a narrative

able to represent human evolution. This

research focuses on the trajectory of ar-

chitectural language, highlighting key

moments where technological advance-

ments catalysed transformative shifts in

design paradigms.

Throughout history, architectural

language has been closely in dialogue with

the technological capabilities of its time;

from the very beginning, human beings, as

constructors of the built environment, ex-

plored how their primordial achievements

laid the foundation for the fusion of form

and function, setting a precedent for future

technological inuences. The advent of

the Industrial Revolution in the 18th centu-

ry heralded a new era of architectural pos-

sibilities. With the proliferation of iron and

steel, architects created daring structural

designs that deed gravity; the rise of sky-

scrapers, bridges, and other monumental

structures that demonstrated the marriage

of technological innovation and architec-

tural expression witnessed the fascinating

relationship between technology and lan-

guage as a representation of incalculable

culture. Architecture becomes a revelation

of what humanity is able to achieve through

the transformation of the built environment.

The 20th century expresses a mo-

ment of discontinuity from historical ar-

chitectural styles, driven by technological

breakthroughs and shifting societal val-

ues. The Bauhaus movement, emphasis-

ing functionalism and efciency, exempli-

ed how technological advancements in

materials and construction techniques in-

uenced architectural aesthetics and gave

birth to Modernism’s minimalist language.

Digital Revolution and Compu-

tational Design, from the early 21st cen-

tury, marked the emergence of the digital

revolution, introducing computational de-

sign tools that transformed the architec-

tural landscape. Pioneers like Frank Gehry

demonstrated to the world the power of

digital modelling and parametric design

to conceive complex geometries that were

previously unreachable, shifting the focus

towards algorithmically generated forms

that seamlessly integrate with technologi-

cal advancements. Today, the integra-

tion of cutting-edge technologies, such

as 3DPC, continues to redene architec-

tural language. Architects and designers

are inuenced by technology and use it

as a canvas to explore novel design para-

digms, incorporating technology into their

designs to express cultural narratives and

push boundaries.

The relationship between architec-

tural language and technological evolution

is a dynamic and cyclical process, often

characterised by three recurring phases:

emulation, specialisation, and experimen-

tation. Concrete, as a versatile building

material, provides an excellent case study

of how these phases are continually revis-

ited. (Di Marco et al., 2023).

The emulation of established ar-

chitectural forms and practices is a con-

stant thread in the history of concrete in

architecture. Technological emulation can

be found in early concrete structures; we

can refer for example, to the Roman Pan-

theon, where were emulated traditional

architectural elements like the dome. The

Pantheon’s concrete dome replicated the

signicance of classical temples while un-

derstanding the material’s unique capa-

bilities. This phase represents the ongoing

inspiration drawn from historical and cul-

tural contexts.

Innovations in concrete technolo-

gies came through the specialisation phase

as its technology evolved. Architects ap-

proached the specialisation phase, focus-

ing on comprehending the unique proper-

ties of the material. The late 19th and early

20th centuries saw specialisation in con-

crete construction, with the development

of reinforced concrete. Architects like

Auguste Perret and Le Corbusier special-

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ised in using reinforced concrete to cre-

ate structures with thin, expressive shells

and innovative spatial congurations. This

specialisation phase signies architects’

increasing expertise in manipulating con-

crete’s structural potential.

Pushing boundaries has always

been an obsession of creatives; the ex-

perimentation phase has been a mirage

of concrete’s architectural journey. Archi-

tects continually push the boundaries of

what is achievable with concrete. Around

eight decades ago, architects like Os-

car Niemeyer experimented with expres-

sive, sculptural forms made possible by

reinforced concrete. His design for the

National Congress in Brasilia exemplies

how concrete’s plasticity and structural

versatility encourage architectural experi-

mentation. Experimentation is an ongoing

cycle as architects continually challenge

conventions with concrete’s evolving tech-

nological capabilities. The masterpieces

by Felix Candela represent a milestone of

this phase.

This article approaches concrete’s

evolution as an illustrative case study of

these recurrent phases. Initially, architects

emulated traditional architectural elements

with concrete, reproducing familiar forms

but with a newfound material. For example,

early roman’s concrete structures emulat-

ed the monumental arches and columns of

classical architecture.

The specialisation phase saw ar-

chitects developing their understanding

of concrete’s properties. Reinforced con-

crete became the focus, allowing special-

ised designs showcasing the material’s

strength and exibility. New languages

developed as a consequence of techno-

logical evolution. Innovations in formwork

and casting techniques enabled the con-

struction of structures by moderns, where

concrete was used to create smooth, func-

tional, geometrically and aesthetically pre-

cise forms.

Experimentation with concrete

continues and sees a new chapter with the

introduction of 3DPC technology. Contem-

porary architects use advanced computa-

tional tools and formwork technologies to

create structures that challenge conven-

tional norms. Even after eight decades

from Neimayer’s work, projects like the

Heydar Aliyev Center in Baku, designed

by Zaha Hadid Architects, showcase how

concrete’s potential for experimentation

remains boundless, enabling the creation

of uid, sculptural forms that redene ar-

chitectural aesthetics.

Concrete’s evolution in architecture

exemplies the recurring phases of emula-

tion, specialisation, and experimentation in

the relationship between architectural lan-

guage and technological evolution. Con-

crete’s malleability and adaptability inspire

architects to revisit and push the bound-

aries of architectural expression, making

it a perpetual case study in the dynamic

dialogue between technology and archi-

tectural language.

The evolution of architectural lan-

guage has been intricately part of techno-

logical progress. From ancient engineering

wonders to the digital age of computa-

tional design, technology has consistently

shaped the way architects conceptualise

and create. The historical continuum be-

tween architectural expression and tech-

nological innovation serves as evidence of

the dynamic relationship between human

creativity and the tools that enable it. 3DPC

is a new chapter of this fascinating story.

5. TRANSFORMING ARCHITECTURAL

AESTHETICS AND FORMS

Integrating 3DPC technology into

the architectural world marks a signicant

moment in design innovation, offering ar-

chitects opportunities that challenge the

boundaries of conventional aesthetics

and forms.

3DPC technology liberates archi-

tects from the constraints of traditional

construction methodologies, conducting in

an era of unprecedented design freedom.

By enabling a specic process where con-

crete is deposed layer-by-layer, architects

can imagine and conceive complex, or-

ganic, and intricately detailed structures

that challenge the limitations of convention-

al formwork. In a few words, it is a revolu-

tion in the relationship between aesthetics

and form. The pioneers and visionary “Be-

spoke Vase Series” by Zaha Hadid Archi-

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tects exemplies this liberation, showcas-

ing the fusion of algorithmic precision with

uid, avant-garde forms (Hadid, 2019).

From another perspective, considering

the controversial relationship in architec-

ture between ornament and structure, his-

torically, architectural ornamentation has

been interlaced with craft, requiring exten-

sive manual labour (Loos, 2014). 3DPC re-

denes ornamentation by integrating it into

the structure itself, one of the milestones

of modern discussion all across the twenti-

eth century. In the MIT Medialab, the work

of Neri Oxman and the Mediated Matter

Group demonstrates this synergy in works

like the “Silk Pavilion II” project. Through

these cutting-edge experimentations, it is

possible to showcase the intricate interplay

of form, structure, and ornament, realized

through 3D printed technology inspiration

(Oxman et al., 2016).

Parametric Exploration and Vari-

ability are further factors that represent the

innovative shift in design by 3DPC. The

introduction of this new technology con-

verges with parametric design methodolo-

gies, enabling architects to drive compu-

tational algorithms to generate a collection

of design iterations. This variability ampli-

es in projects like the “Digital Grotesque”

by Benjamin Dillenburger and Michael

Hansmeyer (Figure 7), where intricate,

algorithmically generated geometries are

translated into tangible architectural forms

through 3DPC. (Dillenburger & Hansmeyer,

2017).

Variability then is at the base of an-

other design opportunity, that is, potential

customization of 3DPC extends to site-

specic adaptations that harmonize archi-

tecture with its environment. This specic

opportunity is relevant for designers who

consider engagement with the cultural

environment as the foundation of the de-

sign process of determining shape and

language. The “Curve Appeal” project by

Gregory Quinn exemplies this potential,

where 3D-printed concrete facades re-

spond to solar exposure, ventilation needs,

and spatial adjacencies, reecting an era

of adaptive architecture that 3D printing

technology facilitates (Quinn, 2018).

Variability could be further explored

in terms of mineral pigments and chemical

pigments which could be used in 3DPC to

add colour and aesthetics to the nished

product. Mineral pigments, including iron

oxide pigments, titanium dioxide and chro-

mium oxide are preferred usually prefered

for their durability and resistance to fading,

making them appropriate for outdoor ap-

plications where exposure to sunlight and

weather is a concern.

Figure 7. Digital Grotesque experimentation by Benjamin Dillenburger and Michael Hansmeyer

https://www.michael-hansmeyer.com/digital-grotesque-II

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In addition to the form, the tactile

qualities of architecture play a key role in

human experience within the built envi-

ronment. 3DPC presents a novel material

expression that combines visual aesthet-

ics with tactile expressiveness. The “Voxel

Chair” by François Brument and Sonia

Laugier demonstrates this synthesis, as

the layering process of 3DPC creates a

textural richness that redenes materiality

in architectural design (Brument & Laugier,

2012).

The progress of 3DPC introduces

a sensory dimension to architectural expe-

riences, prompting emotional responses

that resonate with inhabitants and observ-

ers alike. , materiality through its singular

density and mood sensory, generates a di-

mension which transcends to the feeling of

existence, harmony, beauty, and wellness.

(Zumthor, 2006).

The integration of 3DPC technol-

ogy indicates a renaissance in architec-

tural aesthetics and forms, transcending

the visual realm to engage the senses and

emotions of inhabitants and observers.

By transcending traditional construction

methodologies, architects can explore the

technology to sculpt intricate geometries,

blur the boundaries between ornament

and structure, and foster a symbiotic rela-

tionship between digital design and mate-

rial realization. The transformative nature

of 3DPC is not only conned to the techni-

cal realm but extends to the very essence

of architectural expression.

6. MATERIAL INNOVATION AND

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

3DPC is a relatively new technol-

ogy that allows the creation of complex

structures by deposition of concrete layers

(Xiao et al. 2021). This process requires a

unique concrete mix capable of extruding

through a relatively thin nozzle while main-

taining the same performance as tradition-

al cast concrete.

The usual maximum aggregate

size in traditional concrete is too big for

3DPC since the regular ratio aggregate

size/nozzle’s diameter does not allow a

proper application. The use of smaller ag-

gregate sizes changes the performance of

concrete, reducing the structural perfor-

mance (Monteiro and Mehta 2006). There-

fore, 3DPC uses high-performance binders

to increase strength, typically high-perfor-

mance cement, high-resistance ne aggre-

gates, quartz our, reactive powders, metal

chips, and bres (Alkadhim et al. 2022).

On the other hand, addressing ten-

sional stress within 3D-printed elements

remains the main issue (Xiao et al. 2021).

Many studies are conducted on

alternative types of formworks intended

to optimise concrete distribution, such as

ribbed slabs (Aghaei Meibodi et al. 2018).

3DPC allows discrete material de-

position instead of uniform casting inside

a formwork, making it possible to con-

centrate the materials only in areas where

compression stresses will be present.

The discrete material deposition

will mark a signicant breakthrough from

the sustainability point of view, as the

amount of material used in a structural ele-

ment will be considerably less than the ac-

tual. Another critical consequence deriving

from the extensive use of 3DPC in the Ar-

chitecture Engineering Construction (AEC)

industry would be, in fact, the implementa-

tion of a more sustainable practice. Let’s

remember that the construction industry

uses almost 50% of natural resources and

accounts for almost 15% of global CO2

emissions, with a progressively widening

gap from the 2050 decarbonisation target

(UN Environment Programme, 2022).

7. DESIGN PROCESS IMPLICATIONS

The introduction of 3DPC concrete

technology brings a signicant shift in

architectural practice, redening the de-

sign process and enhancing collaboration

among various stakeholders. It’s essential

to consider the transformative impact of

this technology on the collaborative nature

of architecture and the evolution of the de-

sign process.

We can consider collaborative

synergy as one of the main opportunities

rather than necessities incoming from this

specic technological evolution. The com-

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plexity of 3DPC projects needs a multidisci-

plinary approach, catalyzing collaboration

between architects, engineers, material

scientists, and digital fabrication experts.

Collaborative synergy goes beyond con-

ventional workows, necessitating that ex-

perts share their knowledge and skills to

increase the potential of 3DPC. As a para-

digmatical case, the collaboration between

Foster + Partners and the European Space

Agency on the “Lunar Habitation” project

exemplies how architects and engineers

collaborate to design habitable structures

using 3DPC for extraterrestrial environ-

ments (Foster + Partners, 2021).

The iterative nature of 3DPC tech-

nology encourages architects to embrace

a process of exploration and experimen-

tation. Projects like the “Urban Cabin” by

DUS Architects showcase the iterative

design process facilitated by 3DPC, as ar-

chitects experiment with form, scale, and

texture, resulting in an architecture that

evolves in tandem with technology (DUS

Architects, 2015).

A relevant innovation in the pro-

cess workow is the direct connection

from virtual to physical; the transition from

digital models to physical structures be-

comes seamless with 3DPC. Designers

can directly translate digital designs into

tangible forms, minimizing the gap be-

tween conceptualization and realization,

which very often affects the design out-

come. This simplied transition empowers

architects to understand the spatial impli-

cations of their designs better and rene

them in response to real-world require-

ments. The “Casa de los Dioses” project

by XtreeE exemplies this uid transition,

as architects seamlessly materialize their

digital concepts into habitable spaces

(XtreeE, 2019).

3DPC technology is a dynamic

platform for architects to experiment with

new materials, compositions, and nishes.

Prototyping and material possibilities ex-

ploration lead to innovative surface treat-

ments and novel material applications.

The “C-FAB” project by Emerging Objects

showcases the experimental opportunity

as architects manipulate material compo-

sitions through 3D printing, resulting in a

tactile and visually engaging facade.

The well-known malleability and

adaptability of 3DPC transforms the de-

sign process and encourages architects

to embrace adaptive design strategies.

Real-time feedback from the technology it-

eratively adapts designs to optimize struc-

tural performance, thermal efciency, and

linguistic aesthetical qualities.

The integration of 3DPC technol-

ogy guides a new era of collaborative de-

sign and iterative exploration. Architects,

engineers, and construction profession-

als converge to control the full potential of

this technology, resulting in a different un-

derstanding of the design process that is

characterized by innovation, uidity, and a

closer alignment between digital ideation

and physical realization.

8. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE

DIRECTIONS

Throughout our exploration of the

dynamic relationship between technologi-

cal evolution and architectural language,

with a keen focus on the inuence of 3DPC,

it has become evident that while this inno-

vation holds remarkable promise, it is not

without its challenges and limitations.

The technical issues characteris-

ing 3DPC as described in this article and

the absence of an existing framework for

materials and processes are the main

challenge for the ongoing research.

Solving the problem of the inser-

tion of rebars within the layers of 3DPC

structural elements remains one of the

most difcult tasks. Understanding if the

use of shear-resistant bers embedded in

the concrete mix can have the same per-

formance as the actual rebars is a priority.

Doubts arise on the effectiveness of hav-

ing diffused shear-resistance within the

3DPC parts instead of concentrated high

resistance in those areas in which ten-

sional stresses are present. Nevertheless,

if bers-reinforced concrete proves to be

resistant to shear it would be a giant step

towards the application of 3DPC in the

construction industry.

One of the concrete mixes used

in this research project contains metallic

chips, one of the components used to ob-

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tain some shear-resistance. Additional tests

will be conducted on this concrete mix.

The rheology of concrete mixes

together with the geometric limitations de-

riving from the absence of formworks and

supports mark the complexity of designing

new spatial congurations for structural

elements and non-load-bearing architec-

tural elements.

As part of a more articulated re-

search endeavor, the benchmarking of

concrete mixes and rebars is a fundamen-

tal part of the project and needs to be fur-

ther developed. Only after reaching a clear

understanding of the performance and

rheology of materials it will be possible to

create a computational design model ca-

pable of determining new shapes.

The geometry of 3DPC is itself ex-

tremely challenging: the absence of form-

works and supports means that the pres-

ence of undercuts in the section of the

printed element must be carefully consid-

ered in order to avoid the collapsing of the

element (Di Marco, 2018).

Geometrical issues arise in rela-

tion with rheology and the dimensions of

the 3D-printed element: smaller elements

require less time to complete one layer,

therefore the deposition of the second

layer falls on non-set concrete causing a

considerable deformation that can com-

promise the nal performance.

On the other hand, the 3D printing

of large-scale elements suffers from the

opposite problem: concrete mix will tend

to set during the printing job, causing the

clogging of the extrusion system.

All of these considerations suggest

that a key aspect of the next phases will

be nding the balance between the mate-

rial rheology and its preparation, the 3D

printing speed, and the geometry of the

element.

Sustainability, a major concern in

contemporary architecture, opens ques-

tions regarding the environmental impact

of concrete production and the energy

consumption inherent in 3DPC processes

need to be addressed.

Looking ahead, there are excit-

ing prospects and directions for future

research and advancement in architec-

tural language and 3DPC; one evidently

involves the development of advanced

materials explicitly tailored for 3D printing.

These materials should not only prioritize

structural integrity but also emphasize

durability and sustainability, offering ar-

chitects a broader palette for creative ex-

pression.

Beyond the technical aspects,

there is a profound need for research that

focuses on the human experience of archi-

tectural spaces created with 3DPC. Un-

derstanding how inhabitants interact with

and respond to these structures can guide

architects in designing spaces that priori-

tize comfort, well-being, and aesthetics.

The interplay of technological evo-

lution, architectural language, and 3DPC

technology has revealed not only the re-

markable advancements but also the chal-

lenges that lie ahead. It is in addressing

these challenges and embracing future di-

rections that architects, researchers, and

industry leaders will continue to redene

the landscape of architectural innovation,

opening a new era of design possibilities.

9. CONCLUSION

Our exploration of the impact of

3DPC on architectural language reveals

enormous transformative possibilities. It

frees creatives, including architects, from

traditional constraints, allowing for intri-

cate, explorative and tailored complex de-

signs.

From a structural point of view, the

rst results of the compression tests con-

ducted on concrete mixes demonstrate

how the discontinuous and non-orthotropic

structure of the specimen heavily affects

its performance (Table 1).

The extreme variation of the com-

pression strength indicates that a 3DPC

element seems to not have a precise fore-

seeable resistance. We consider repeat-

ing the compression tests several times

throughout the research project duration

(2 years) aiming at a sample of 100 tests.

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From an engineering perspective,

even if an average value will be calculated,

it would be irresponsible to take it as rep-

resentative given the relevant deviations.

We predict that a more rational ap-

proach would be to use the lowest value as

compression strength, eventually adding

a safety coefcient in the computational

model to remain far from critical stresses.

From an aesthetical perspective,

architectural ornamentation is redened,

and parametric design and 3DPC merge,

enabling architects to generate diverse

design iterations while delivering a new

language.

Customization extends to site-spe-

cic adaptations, creating an era of adap-

tive architecture and rediscovery of the

myth of Genius Loci in design processes.

(Norberg Schulz, 2011)

Material expression and texture

gain prominence, illustrating how 3DPC

enriches architectural aesthetics; this in-

tegration introduces a sensory dimension

to architecture, evoking emotional connec-

tions. Challenges lie in technology matu-

ration, cultural/regulatory adaptation, and

sustainability.

The future holds promise in ad-

vanced materials, robotics, human-centric

design, and interdisciplinary collaboration,

offering professionals new frontiers for in-

novation, inviting designers to transcend

boundaries and create a dynamic, vibrant

built environment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research described in this

paper was nancially supported by Xi’an

Jiaotong – Liverpool University and con-

ducted with the technical and technologi-

cal support of Winsun.

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